Maturity period of Kenjutsu schools
From the Sengoku period to the Edo period, numerous kenjutsu schools emerged. The Kashima Shintō-ryū (鹿島新當流) gave rise to schools like the Mijin-ryū (微塵流) of Negishi Tokaku (根岸兎角), the Tendō-ryū (天道流, also known as Ten-ryū 天流) of Saitō Denki-bō (斎藤伝鬼坊), and the Ichiharyū (一羽流) of Moroka Ippa (諸岡一羽), which eventually branched out further.
The Nen-ryū (念流) also produced various branches, including Shuzaryū (首座流), Okuyama Nen-ryū (奥山念流), and Arakawa Nen-ryū (荒川念流). The Maneba Nen-ryū (馬庭念流), which inherited the legitimate lineage of Nen-ryū, flourished during the Edo period in the region of Jōshū Maneba and is still practiced there today.
The Chūjō-ryū (中条流) passed its lineage to the Tōda-ryū (富田流), which later led to branches like the Tōgun-ryū (東軍流) and the Kanemaki-ryū (鐘捲流). From Kanemaki-ryū came the Ittō-ryū (一刀流) of Itō Ittōsai (伊東一刀斎), which, along with the Yagyū Shinkage-ryū (柳生新陰流), became the official kenjutsu schools of the shōgun, greatly influencing Edo-period kenjutsu. Prominent schools of early Edo also included the Niten Ichi-ryū (二天一流) and Jigen-ryū (示現流).
Miyamoto Musashi (宮本武蔵), the founder of Niten Ichi-ryū, is renowned for having no formal master, although it is believed that his father (or possibly adoptive father), Hirata Munisai (平田無二斎), practiced a unique fencing style called Tōri-ryū (當理流), which incorporated both unarmed and sword techniques. Musashi's martial skills are thought to have stemmed from Tōri-ryū, and unarmed techniques are still preserved in Niten Ichi-ryū. The sword techniques of Niten Ichi-ryū, compiled during Musashi’s later years, show influences from Shinkage-ryū, Ittō-ryū, and Nen-ryū, suggesting that Musashi studied the leading kenjutsu schools of his time in depth.
Jigen-ryū (示現流), known as the secret sword of Satsuma, also originated from Shintō-ryū (神道流) and Shinkage-ryū influences. Its founder, Tōgō Higo no Kami Shigetaka (東郷肥後守重位), studied Taisha-ryū (タイ捨流) in Satsuma domain and later encountered Zen monk Zenkichi Oshō (善吉和尚), who taught him the Tenshin Shōden Katori Shintō-ryū (天真正示顕流). Tenshin Shōden Katori Shintō-ryū was said to have been founded by Tose Yozemon Nagamasa (十瀬与左衛門長宗), a disciple of Wakasa no Kami Morinobu (若狭守盛信), the third successor of Katori Shintō-ryū, which itself was established by Iizasa Chōi-sai Ienao (飯篠長威斎直家). After studying Taisha-ryū, the Shintō-ryū lineage, and the nodachi techniques of Satsuma, Shigetaka founded Jigen-ryū.
Both Miyamoto Musashi of Niten Ichi-ryū and Tōgō Shigetaka of Jigen-ryū left significant writings and developed unique theories of kenjutsu. Musashi’s works, Heihō Sanjūgo Kajō (兵法三十五箇条) and Gorin no Sho (五輪書), are world-famous treatises on strategy, known for their detailed and practical descriptions, contrasting with the more artistic approaches of Yagyū Shinkage-ryū, such as in Heihō Kadensho (兵法家伝書). Similarly, Tōgō Shigetaka’s writings reveal a profound theory of swordsmanship based on Zen, Buddhism, and esotericism, offering an austere and elevated perspective on kenjutsu distinct from Shinkage-ryū.
With prominent schools like Yagyū Shinkage-ryū, Niten Ichi-ryū, and Jigen-ryū, kenjutsu reached a maturity period both in practice and theory, marking a stage of great development in martial arts history.
By the mid-Edo period, two significant trends emerged in kenjutsu schools: its transformation into a discipline for cultural refinement and its evolution into a competitive activity.
During the Edo period, some schools, deeply connected to Zen, prioritized spiritual development (shinpo) over lethal combat techniques. The most notable was Mujushin Ken-ryū (無住心剣流) founded by Harigaya Sekiun (針谷夕雲). Sekiun, a disciple of Ogasawara Genshin-sai (小笠原源信斎) of Shinkage-ryū (新陰流), later established Mujushin Ken-ryū. Like Musashi, who criticized deceptive techniques in his Gorin no Sho, Sekiun condemned such practices:
"Those who indulge in such methods are destined to live in darkness both in life and in the path of the heavens. For this reason, I deeply despise these beastly arts and techniques," he said. He added, "In our school, from the earliest training to the deepest secrets, practice is based on the heart and conduct of an innocent child."
Though Mujushin Ken-ryū produced excellent swordsmen, such as Odagiri Kazunari (小田切一雲) and Maritani Enshirō (真里谷円四郎), the school did not endure, and its techniques are now difficult to trace.
The development of drawing techniques (battojutsu) and the evolution of iai-jutsu also took place during the mid-Edo period. The term iai (居合) was written using various kanji in ancient times, including 抜刀, 抜剣, 居相, 労之内, 利刀, 詰合, 詰坐, and 坐撃, among others. Most of the iai-jutsu schools that flourished during the Edo period trace their origins to Hayashizaki Jinsuke Shigenobu (林崎甚助重信), who lived from the late Muromachi period to the Azuchi-Momoyama period.
It is said that during the Eiroku period, Hayashizaki visited the Hayashizaki Shrine in Ushu Province (modern-day Yamagata) and, in a trance, received mystical iai techniques. Among his most notable disciples were:
Tamiya Heibei Shigemasa (田宮半兵衛重正), founder of the Tamiya-ryū (田宮流)
Katayama Hoki no Kami Hisayasu (片山伯耆守久安), founder of the Hoki-ryū (伯耆流)
Sekiguchi Jushin (関口柔心), founder of the Sekiguchi-ryū (関口流)
Nagano Muraku-sai (長野無楽斎), founder of the Muraku-ryū (無楽流)
These individuals became the foundation of iai-jutsu for later generations, establishing the art as a vital and enduring martial tradition.
For example, Hasegawa Eishin (長谷川英信), the seventh successor of Hayashizaki-ryū, introduced a significant change in drawing techniques. Previously, the draw was performed with the sword facing downward, but Hasegawa shifted to drawing from the uchigatana (打刀) with the blade facing upward. Similarly, Ōmori Rokurōzaemon (大森六郎左衛門) of the Shinkage-ryū founded the Ōmori-ryū (大森流), combining five drawing techniques from the scabbard with the etiquette rituals of the Ogasawara-ryū (小笠原流). He also taught drawing techniques from the seiza position.
During this time, iai was highly valued as a defense technique against sudden attacks during peacetime. It also began to be regarded as an artistic discipline that strengthened both the body and spirit, becoming a practice of cultural refinement. Since iai could be practiced individually within the space of a single tatami mat, it gained popularity among samurai as a martial art well-suited to the peaceful Edo period.
In the competitive realm, notable schools included Jikishinkage-ryū (直心影流), an inheritor of Ogasawara Genshin-sai’s lineage, and Nakanishi-ha Ittō-ryū (中西派一刀流), derived from the Ittō-ryū (一刀流). Jikishinkage-ryū introduced training with bamboo swords (shinai), and later, Nakanishi-ha Ittō-ryū added chest protectors, which popularized shinai training.
During the Bunka and Bunsei eras (1804–1830), shinai training gained widespread popularity, which drew criticism from more traditional schools focused on forms (kata). Despite developing shinai-geiko (bamboo sword training), both Jikishinkage-ryū and Ittō-ryū prohibited its practice before mastering traditional forms. Meanwhile, the Yagyū Shinkage-ryū (柳生新陰流), which preserved traditional kata practices, developed "Shiai Seiho" (試合勢法), combat forms featuring a wide variety of techniques.
Additionally, kenjutsu schools from the Sengoku era adapted their armored combat techniques (kaisha kenjutsu) to unarmored combat techniques (suhada kenjutsu), allowing greater freedom in sword use within the dojo.
From the mid-Edo period onward, martial arts experienced a period of decline. However, from the Kansei era (1789) to the Tenpō era (1830) and toward the end of the Tokugawa shogunate, kenjutsu experienced a resurgence. New schools such as Shinkage-ryū (心形刀流), Hokushin Ittō-ryū (北辰一刀流), Shindō Munen-ryū (神道無念流), and Kyōshin Meichi-ryū (鏡新明智流) thrived and spread kenjutsu nationally, with a focus on shinai-based training.
For instance, Ikumi Tadakazu (井汲唯一), founder of the Hatsumeikenri Kataichi-ryū (初実剣理方一流), joined the Shindō Munen-ryū and became the head of the school within a few years. Similarly, Hetemi Sōsuke (逸見宗助) from the Tatsumi-ryū (立身流) joined the Kyōshin Meichi-ryū and became its head in less than a year. Even if they had not mastered all the techniques of the school, high ranks were awarded to those who demonstrated skill in shinai-geiko (bamboo sword training), marking the beginnings of the competitive mindset seen in modern sports.
The intense competitiveness and appeal of shinai training contributed to the rise of kenjutsu dojos. However, schools that preserved traditional kata training, such as Nen-ryū (念流) and Tennen Rishin-ryū (天然理心流), also survived and continued to produce skilled swordsmen during the turbulent end of the shogunate.